The Battle of Siffin was not merely a military confrontation; it marked a turning point in Islamic history. Muawiyah, who governed in Syria, refused to pledge allegiance to Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him). Using the pretext of seeking revenge for Uthman’s blood, he prepared an army to confront the Imam.
On the other hand, this war underscored the position of Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) as a just ruler and defender of truth, while highlighting his role in preserving Islamic unity.
The Call to Allegiance
To prevent war and bloodshed, Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) decided to send a letter to Muawiyah inviting him to pledge allegiance and submit. He entrusted this letter to Jarir ibn Abdullah, a well-known companion, to deliver to Syria.
Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) wrote to Jarir: “After my letter reaches you, compel Muawiyah to choose between two paths: a humiliating war or a satisfying peace. If he chooses war, declare that I disassociate myself from him. If he wants peace, take his pledge of allegiance.”
When the letter reached Jarir, he took it to Muawiyah, read it to him, and then said: “O Muawiyah! The heart only softens through sin and opens only through repentance. I think your heart has been sealed by sin. I see you standing between truth and falsehood, as if your eyes are fixed on the hands of others.”
Muawiyah replied: “By the will of God, I will give you a decisive answer at the first opportunity.” [1]
Muawiyah’s Reaction and the Response of Amir al-Muminin
Jarir ibn Abdullah delivered Amir al-Muminin’s (peace be upon him) letter to Muawiyah. Instead of accepting the invitation to pledge allegiance, Muawiyah refused to obey the Commander of the Faithful, using the excuse of avenging Uthman.
In response to Amir al-Muminin’s (peace be upon him) letter, Muawiyah told Jarir: “Write a letter to your master (Amir al-Muminin, peace be upon him) and ask him to hand over Syria and Egypt along with their taxes to me. Also, he should arrange things so that after his death no pledge of allegiance binds me. Then I will pledge allegiance to him and acknowledge his caliphate.”
Jarir said: “Write whatever you wish, and I will write along with you.” So Muawiyah wrote a letter to Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him).
Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) wrote back to Jarir:
“Muawiyah seeks to have neither allegiance upon his neck nor obedience to my command. He also wants to deceive you so he can win over the people of Syria for his own benefit. Mughira ibn Shu’ba suggested in Medina that I appoint Muawiyah over Syria, but I refused, because God does not want to see me as a helper to those who lead others astray. If Muawiyah pledges allegiance, that is better; if not, you should return.”
And Muawiyah’s letter became public among the Arabs. [2]
A Decisive Reply to Muawiyah’s Claims
When Muawiyah had taken the pledge of allegiance from the people of Syria, he wrote a letter declaring war and told the envoy of Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him), Jarir: “Join your master (Amir al-Muminin).”
Amir al-Muminin then replied:
“From Ali to Muawiyah ibn Sakhr. A letter has reached me from someone who possesses neither insight to guide him nor leadership to direct him. Rather, his whims and desires have called him, and he has answered the call of his lower self. Misguidance has taken hold of his reins, and he has followed it.
You imagined that mentioning my supposed lapse regarding Uthman has invalidated and nullified my allegiance over you. Yet by my own soul, I was only one of the Migrants. Just as they entered Islam, I entered it too, and just as they rose for Islam, I rose as well. God did not intend to gather them around falsehood or blind their hearts. I neither issued an order for his killing—so that the sin would fall upon me as the one who commanded it—nor did I kill him myself, so that I would now deserve retribution.
As for your statement that ‘the people of Syria now rule over the people of the Hijaz,’ show me a man from the Quraysh of Syria who would be accepted in consultation (shura) or for whom the caliphate would be permissible. If you make such a claim, the Migrants and the Helpers will reject you—unless you point to someone from the Quraysh of the Hijaz as ruler. And regarding your writing, ‘Hand over Uthman’s killers to us,’ what connection do you have with Uthman? You are a man from Banu Umayya, and Uthman’s own sons are more entitled to seek revenge and retribution for him. If you think you are more worthy and stronger than them in avenging their father’s blood, first submit to my authority, then bring that group (Uthman’s killers) before me for judgment so that I may guide both you and them to the path of truth.
As for your drawing distinctions between Syria and Basra, and between yourself and Talha and Zubayr, the reality in this matter is the same: the pledge of allegiance was universal and comprehensive, and there is no room for reconsideration or reclaiming choice in it.
But your sympathy for Uthman, your suspicion of me, and your counting me as complicit in Uthman’s affair—you did not say this on the basis of manifest truth or certain knowledge. As for my superiority in Islam, my kinship with the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him and his family), and my honor among Quraysh (which you yourself acknowledged), by my own soul, if you had the power to deny these merits, you would surely have denied them too.” [3]
The Dispute Between Ashtar and Jarir
Following criticism from the people against Jarir, Ashtar came to Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) and claimed that if he had been sent, he could have brought Muawiyah back to the right path. Jarir warned against the action by pointing out the dangers to life and possible accusations, but in the end Ashtar accused Jarir of causing division and disrupting the order among the companions. [4]
The Letter Muawiyah Feared to Read!
In a letter to Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him), Muawiyah listed his father’s aristocratic record in the Age of Ignorance and presented his own position as an Islamic governor, a relative of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him and his family), and scribe of revelation as signs of his own virtue.
Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) wrote in reply:
“Does the son of the liver-eater wrong me in my virtues? O slave, write: Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) is the Prophet, my brother, and my relative by blood and marriage. In my youth I preceded you on the path of Islam, while even before that, while still in my mother’s womb, I acknowledged his prophethood. I used to pray when I was a small child, before reaching the age of maturity. Woe, woe, woe to the one who tomorrow stands before God burdened with the injustice done to me!”
After that, Muawiyah said: “Hide this letter so the people of Syria do not read it and become attracted to the son of Abu Talib.” [5]
The Deal Between Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As
Muawiyah asks Amr ibn al-As to join the jihad against Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him), citing reasons such as opposing God’s command, creating division, killing the caliph, inciting sedition, and breaking bonds. Amr asks, “Against whom?” When he hears it is Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him), he emphasizes the Commander of the Faithful’s superior qualities—Hijra, precedence in faith, closeness to the Prophet, knowledge, jurisprudence, and divine station—and asks what he would receive if he joined Muawiyah. Muawiyah promises “the governorship of Egypt,” and Amr claims it as his share. Muawiyah hesitates over the offer. [6]
The Commander of the Faithful’s Criticism of a Sinister Alliance
In a sermon about the pact between Amr ibn al-As and Muawiyah, Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) said:
“Amr ibn al-As only pledged allegiance to Muawiyah after setting a heavy price as the cost of that allegiance. So may the hand of the ill-fated giver of allegiance be ruined, and may the buyer of the trust be humiliated. Now that the fire of this battle has flared up and its flames have risen high, prepare yourselves and ready the equipment of war. In this path, keep patience alive in your hearts, for patience and steadfastness are the nearest path to victory.” [7]
Muawiyah’s Pretext for Starting the War
Before marching toward Siffin, Muawiyah wrote to the people of Mecca and Medina, calling them to seek revenge for Uthman’s blood. In reply, Abdullah ibn Umar wrote to Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-As that they had taken the wrong path. “You (Muawiyah) are the freedman of the Prophet, and you (Amr) are the accused. Leave us alone, for we have neither help nor guardianship for you.” Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas also replied that in Umar’s council all those for whom the caliphate was permissible were present, and none was superior to another except by consensus. But Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) possessed all the virtues we had, while we did not possess what he had. He added that it would have been better for Talha and Zubayr if they had stayed at home. [8]
Issuing the Command for Jihad
In Kufa, before marching toward Siffin, Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) addressed the people in these words: “How strange it is from Muawiyah son of Abu Sufyan that he disputes with me over the caliphate and denies my Imamate. He thinks he is more deserving than me, while with this false notion he has shown insolence toward God and His Messenger. He has neither right nor proof, and neither the Migrants nor the Helpers have pledged allegiance to him, nor have the rest of the Muslims submitted to him.
O Migrants, O Helpers, and O those who hear my words! Did you not consider obedience to me obligatory upon yourselves and pledge allegiance to me with complete willingness and eagerness? Did I not take a covenant from you that you would accept my words? Was the pledge of allegiance to me on that day not firmer than the pledge to Abu Bakr and Umar? So how is it that they did not break the allegiance to the previous caliphs, yet they broke my covenant and did not honor my pact? Is it not incumbent upon me to advise you and insist on fulfilling my duty? Do you not know that allegiance to me—whether in your presence or absence—is obligatory upon you?
How could Muawiyah and his companions break my covenant, while I, due to my kinship, closeness, and record of faith with the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him and his family), am more deserving of the caliphate than anyone else? Have you forgotten the words of the Messenger of God (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) on the day of Ghadir Khumm? Have you erased from memory the one who spoke about my guardianship and friendship? So fear God and prepare for jihad against Muawiyah, who has broken my covenant and drawn his companions away from obedience to me.” [9]
The Commander of the Faithful’s Reason for Delaying the Start of War
When his companions protested why he did not begin the war, Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) said: “As for your claim that all these delays stem from fear of death, by God, it makes no difference to me whether I go toward death or death comes toward me. But as for your saying that I am hesitant regarding the people of Syria, by God, I have never delayed any war except in the hope that a group of them might join me, be guided by me, and receive light from my light. This is more beloved to me than killing them while they remain in their misguidance, even though they will eventually return to bear the burden of their own sins.” [10]
Jihad of Explanation Against Muawiyah’s Sedition
Through precise management of correspondence and reasoned letter-writing with Muawiyah, Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) sought to clarify the truths and preserve political order within the Islamic community.
Salim, one of the loyal companions of Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him), says: “During the Battle of Siffin, Muawiyah sent his message to Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) through Abu al-Darda’ and Abu Hurayra. After hearing the message and reading the letter, the Imam wrote a detailed and reciprocal reply to Muawiyah.”
The Commander of the Faithful said: “The Messenger of God (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) appointed me at Ghadir Khumm and said: ‘God has entrusted me with a mission that has tightened my chest, because I believe the people will deny me. But God has warned me that if I do not convey it, I will be punished. O Ali, stand up!’ Then he called for the congregational prayer, led the noon prayer with the people, and afterward said: ‘O people, God is my Master and I am the master of the believers, and my authority over them is greater than their authority over themselves. Know that whoever I am master of, Ali is also his master. O Lord, love whoever loves him and hate whoever hates him; help whoever helps him and humiliate whoever humiliates him.’
Salman al-Farsi stood up and said: ‘O Messenger of God, what is his guardianship like?’ The Prophet said: ‘His guardianship is like my guardianship; whoever I am more entitled to than himself, Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) is also more entitled to him.’ God Almighty then revealed this verse: ‘Today I have perfected for you your religion, completed My favor upon you, and chosen Islam as your religion.’
Salman al-Farsi asked: ‘O Messenger of God, were these verses revealed only concerning Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him)?’ The Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) said: ‘They were revealed concerning him and his successors until the Day of Resurrection.’ Then he said: ‘O Salman, you and those present with you in this gathering are witnesses, and convey this news to those who are absent.’
Salman said: ‘O Messenger of God, explain them to us.’ The Seal of the Prophets (peace and blessings be upon him and his family) said: ‘Ali is my brother, vizier, trustee, heir, my caliph among the community, and the master of every believer after me. After him there will be eleven Imams from his descendants: first Hasan, then Hussain, and after that nine from the descendants of al-Hussain, one after another. They are with the Quran and the Quran is with them; they will not separate from it until they come to me at the Pool of Kawthar.’” [11]
Amr ibn al-As’s Deception Strategy
Upon hearing the news of Amir al-Muminin ’s (peace be upon him) army marching, Muawiyah, fearing defeat, consulted Amr ibn al-As. Amr analyzed the difference in the nature of Ali’s war and Muawiyah’s, and suggested using the trick of “calling to the Quran” to prevent defeat. He proposed raising copies of the Quran on spears to create such chaos and disagreement among the troops that even accepting it would shatter their order. [12]
The Plot of the Syrian Army
Tamim ibn Hudhaym narrates that at dawn the Syrian army had hung copies of the Quran on their spears. Among them, the largest Quran was placed on three spears carried by ten men. [13]
Response to Muawiyah’s Trick
Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) wrote in a letter to Muawiyah: “What reaches me from you is astonishing! I know full well where your path leads and what your end will be. If I do not hasten against you, it is not out of weakness; rather, it is because of a time I am certain of and you do not accept. It is as if I see you crying out from the intensity of battle and your companions, out of fear of the sword, calling me to accept a Book they themselves do not believe in and which they deny.” [14]
Rebuking the Deceived Companions
When his companions in Siffin, after Muawiyah’s trick of raising the Qurans, turned back from fighting, Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) said: “You have truly done something that weakened the pillars of Islam, brought down its honor, and caused humiliation and lowliness. You were in a stronger position and the enemy feared destruction; moreover, his casualties weighed heavily on him and he had tasted the pain of his wounds. So, he raised the Qurans and called you to what is in them to stop you from yourselves, to halt the war between you, and with trickery and deception to lie in wait for your death. If you have agreed with them on what they like and given them what they wanted, you have been deceived. By God, I do not think that after this you will accompany me on the path of growth (and truth) or grasp sound judgment.” [15]
Expressing Displeasure Over the Arbitration Affair
From the words of Amir al-Muminin (peace be upon him) after drafting the peace treaty and arbitration agreement, when the Iraqis criticized him: “By God, I was not pleased with this matter and did not like that you should be pleased with it; but since you would accept nothing but satisfaction, I too gave my consent. And once I consented, returning from the decision is not permissible afterward; because after acknowledgment, change is not allowed unless by breaking the covenant one commits disobedience to God and by untying the knot (breaking the pact) one transgresses His Book. At that point, fight those who abandon the command of God.
But as for what you said about Ashtar—that with his own hand in writing the letter he disobeyed and opposed my command—he is not from that group of the disobedient, and I have no fear for him on this account. I wish there were two men like him among you, or even that there were just one man like him who sees in your enemy what he sees, so that the burden of your affairs would be lighter upon me and I could hope that some of your crookedness would be straightened.
I tried to stop you from what you did, but you disobeyed. So you and I are like the words of that brother from Hawazin who said: ‘Am I not from the tribe of Ghaziyya? If they go astray, I go astray too, and if Ghaziyya finds the right way, I find it too.’” [16]
References:
[1] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 378
[2] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 378
[3] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 379
[4] Waq‘at Siffin, vol. 1, p. 59
[5] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 33, p. 132
[6] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 373
[7] Nahj al-Balagha, Sermon 26
[8] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 382
[9] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 388
[10] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 556
[11] Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays, p. 142
[12] Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays al-Hilali, p. 177
[13] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 32, p. 529
[14] Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 33, p. 124
[15] Al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh, vol. 3, p. 322; Al-Irshad, vol. 1, p. 268
[16] Al-Irshad, vol. 1, p. 269
